Keiretsu groups : their role in the japanese economy and a reference point (or a paradigm) for other countries
Jerzy, Grabowiecki.
Grabowiecki, Jerzy.
This paper examines the role of keiretsu groups in the Japanese economy. In the extraordinarily successful postwar period keiretsu became an essential factor in enhancing economic growth and structural upgrading as well as closing up a productivity and technology gap between Japan and other developed countries. The term of keiretsu has been applied to a variety of Japanese intercorporate networks. In general, keiretsu groups are defined as clusters of independently managed firms maintaining close and stable economic ties, cemented by a governance mechanism such as presidents’ clubs, partial cross-ownership, and interlocking directorates. Within the broad definition lie two distinctive variations. The horizontal keiretsu are conglomerates covering several industries linked by cross-shareholding, intra-group financing and high level management by a central (often shadowy) body of directors. The vertical keiretsu are groups around one big manufacturer and consist of a multi-layered system of suppliers focused on the core company.
Keiretsu groups are of great interest for researchers and scholars both from the point of view of the explication of the dynamics and ability to achieve and maintain in competitive conditions, and in order to seek pointers to identification of successful features of corporate groups in general. Moreover, keiretsu groups provide an interesting normative model, and possible sources of practices and examples for Central and Eastern European transition economies, especially Polish corporate groups.
There are two main research objectives of this paper:
- The first objective is to describe the organizational structure and mode of operation of two types of keiretsu groups (horizontal and vertical), and their role in Japan’s economy.
- The second objective is to present a comparison of keiretsu groups and corporate groups in other countries, especially Poland’s corporate groups. The main question arises whether in Poland there were conditions to establish corporate groups of keiretsu type at the beginning of the system transformation in the 1990s, or whether such conditions exist now, after accession to EU.
Contents
1. Introduction ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・1
2. Conglomerates zaibatsu as keiretsu Phenotypes ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・4
2.1. Family business in the Tokugawa period ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・4
2.2. Industrialization following the Meiji Restoration and “political merchants” ・・・・・6
2.3. Organizational structure and governance of zaibatsu ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・10
2.4. The banking crisis, the Great Depression and the bankruptcy of some zaibatsu ・・14
2.5. Wartime economy and the reorganization of zaibatsu ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・16
3. Postwar Reforms and Emergence of keiretsu Groups ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・19
3.1. Political and economic reforms and zaibatsu dissolution・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・19
3.2. Defining keiretsu ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・21
3.3. Types of keiretsu groups ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・23
3.4. The functions of the keiretsu groups・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・30
4. Corporate Governance System ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・36
4.1. Institutions and mechanism of corporate governance・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・36
4.2. The financial system and corporate governance・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・39
4.3. Components of corporate governance ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・43
4.3.1. The main bank system ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・43
4.3.2. Cross-shareholding relations ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・45
4.3.3. Labour relations・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・48
5. Keiretsu Groups and Corporate Groups in Other Countries・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・50
5.1. Corporate groups in historical perspective ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・50
5.2. Keiretsu groups and corporate groups in developed countries ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・51
5.3. Keiretsu groups and corporate groups in emerging markets ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・54
5.3.1. Corporate groups in East Asian economies ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・54
5.3.2. Corporate groups in Central and Eastern European transition economies.
The case of Poland・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・57
6. Conclusions and Recommendations ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・65
References ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・69
Appendix ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・75
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